general rules
- don’t ask questions directly
- example:
- bad: What can be done to achieve …?
- good: It is necessary to consider how to achieve …
- example:
- don’t address the reader
- don’t use contractions (it’s, don’t, …)
- more formal vocabulary
- example:
- enquire instead of ask
- most distressed instead of very unhappy
- state instead of say
- impolite instead of rude
- example:
- avoid alliterations
- avoid unnecessary adverbs (like, already, even)
- use formal linking words
- use passive forms
- example:
- bad: You have to consider all the parameters.
- good: All the parameters need to be considered.
- example:
- be indirect
- example:
- bad: it is stupid
- good: it is not very intelligent
- example:
- be tentative (seem, appear, could)
- parallelism:
- example:
- bad: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent, and he should have sensitivity to cultural differences.
- good: A diplomat should be patient, intelligent and sensitive to cultural differences.
- example:
formal vocabulary
| informal | formal |
|---|---|
| find out | determine |
| discover | |
| investigate | |
| come across | encounter |
| make up | invent |
| go in(to) | enter |
| put up with | tolerate |
| endure | |
| accept | |
| look into | investigate |
| analyse | |
| give in | surrender |
| job | position |
| employment | |
| profession | |
| post | |
| career | |
| many | a (considerable) number / amount of |
| several |
formal negative expressions
| informal | formal |
|---|---|
| not any | no |
| didn’t do | did no |
| not much | little |
| not many | few |
| didn’t do much | did little |
formal linking words
- for example
- such as
- including
- e.g.
- for example
- run-on expressions
- and so forth
- etc
- linking
- firstly
- secondly
- finally
- addition
- and
- not only … but also
- furthermore
- in addition
- moreover
- additionally
- in addition to
- as well as
- unexpected result
- yet
- although
- though
- even though
- however
- nevertheless
- despite
- in spite of
- regardless of
- still (literary)
- cause and effect
- because
- since
- as
- the reason why
- now that
- therefore
- as a result
- consequently
- hence
- thus
- for this reason
- thanks to
- owing to
- accordingly
- because of
- due to
- as a result of
- on account of
- in view of
- results in
- leads to
- impacts on
- is responsible for
- explains
- is the cause of
- is a factor in
- influences
- plays a part in
- plays a role in
- outcome
- impact
- effect
- bring about
- cause
- give rise to
- produce
- precipitate
- trigger
- contributes to
- under those circumstances
- bring forth (too poetic, not used in natural sciences)
- is caused by
- arises from
- is attributable to
- is due to
- derives from
- stems from
- results from
- underlies
- impedes
- checks
- inhibits
- prevents
- curbs
- purpose
- so as (not) to
- so that
- in order to
- in order that
- clarification
- in other words
- i.e. (no comma!)
- that is
- condition
- if
- even if
- only if
- unless
- provided that
- providing
- as long as
- in the event that
- on condition that
- so long as
- when
- whenever
- whether or not
- contrast
- all the same,
- while
- whereas
- in contrast to
- however
- unlike
- even so
- even though
- nevertheless
- although this may be true
- on the contrary
- at the same time
- despite
- in spite of
- conversely
- otherwise
- regardless
- exception
- apart from
- conclusion / summary
- as can be seen
- generally speaking
- in the final analysis
- all things considered
- as shown above
- in the long run
- given these points
- as has been noted
- for the most part
- in fact
- in summary
- in conclusion
- in essence
- altogether
- to summarise
- overall
- to sum up
- on the whole
- all in all
misc
- especially vs. specially
- especially = in particular
- specially = “extra”
- examples:
- He is especially proud of …
- These were specially done for me.
- examples: