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the use of commas
- sentence must have subject, verb and object
- example:
- S:{I} V:{know} O:{that he will pass the exam}.
- no comma after {know}!
otherwise you get two incomplete sentences:- I know
- that he will pass the exam
- explanating clauses
- example:
- My son, who lives in NYC, is an attorney.
- means: My only son is an attorney. By the way, he lives in NYC.
- My son who lives in NYC is an attorney.
- means: One of my sons lives in NYC. He is an attorney.
- example:
- I had a cocktail, which was unusual.
- means: It is unusual for me to have cocktails.
- I had a cocktail which was unusual.
- means: The cocktail was unusual.
tenses
past
- when something is clearly over
- if there is a time reference
- even if only in the speaker’s head
present perfect
- leading up to the present
- example:
- I haven’t been there yet.
- has result in the present
- example:
- Why are you so sad? Because my girlfriend has left me.
- if takes place during time interval
- when time is unimportant
- present perfect vs. past
- continuous vs. discrete
- examples:
- Have you ever seen …?
- means: Have you seen it at all?
- Did you ever see …?
- means: in one of the occassions in which that was possible?
- open vs. closed
- examples:
- She has suffered all her life.
- She suffered all her life.
- indefinite vs. definite
- examples:
- Did you know that John has painted a portrait of Mary?
- Did you know that John painted this portrait of Mary?
- transition present perfect → past:
- after inclusion of a time reference
- transition past → present perfect:
- present perfect progressive vs. present perfect
- example:
- ppp
- scenario: not readily-painted ceiling
- Ann’s clothes are covered with paint. She has been painting the ceiling all day.
- pp
- scenario: readily-painted ceiling
- The ceiling was white. Now it’s blue. Ann has painted the ceiling.
- example:
- ppp
- scenario: person running before finish line
- He’s been running the marathon for charity.
- pp
- scenario: person after the race has been finished
- He’s run the marathon for charity. It’s finally over!
future
- forms
- prediction (not sure, may not happen)
- example:
- George will leave tomorrow.
- strong intention
- example:
- George is going to leave tomorrow.
- according to external source (e.g. time table)
- personal arrangement
- example:
- George is leaving tomorrow.
- very formal
- examples:
- George is to leave tomorrow.
- Please accompany my daughter, who is to marry.
- command: You are to wait here until I come back.
- contingent future
- examples
- If I am to succeed, I will have to work very hard.
- When I get there, I will …
- As soon as … , I will …
- If I win, I will …
- After I leave school, I will …
- While I’m in NYC, I will …
- Before I get too old, I will …
- inminent future
- to be about to
- to be on the point of
- to be on the verge of (only to express negative ideas)
- will vs. ing-form
- example:
- I’m buying the meat.
- means: I’m going to do it for sure.
- OK, I’ll buy the beer.
- means: I’m already buying the meat so it makes no difference.
- example:
- I reckon it will cost 7,000.
- The calculation arrived. It’s going to cost 9,000.
- will/shall + progressive
- example:
- Please give this to him.
- answers
- OK. I’ll see him tomorrow.
- means: deciding now to help.
- OK. I’ll be seeing him tomorrow.
- means: I’m seeing him anyway, so I’ve got no problem in helping.
- example:
- When will you do it again?
- When will you be doing it again?
- means: I know you are going to do it sooner or later. Just let me know when.
- statements are always non-progressive
- example:
- The satellite will reach the moon on …